Zoonotic Diseases

Potential Zoonotic Diseases
 

The overall incidence of transmission of disease-producing agents from amphibians to humans is low. 

There are, however, a few agents that are found in amphibians and aquarium water that have the potential to be transmitted. In general, humans acquire these diseases through ingestion of infected tissues or aquarium water, or by contamination of lacerated or abraded skin. Exotic amphibians can produce highly dangerous skin secretions, and should be labeled as such and handled with protective gloves. An important feature of many of these organisms is their opportunistic nature. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that compromises the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition, or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy), you are at risk for contracting diseases and should consult your physician. The following is a list of potential amphibian zoonoses.

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion, either direct or indirect. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and fever. Antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for the illness.

Sparganosis: While unlikely in this area, amphibians can become intermediate hosts to the pseudophyllidean cestode of the genus Spirometra. Disease in man is primarily caused by ingestion of meat or contaminated water. Contact with the muscles of infected frogs is also considered a mode of transmission. Common symptoms include a nodular lesion (bump) that develops slowly and can be found on any part of the body. The main symptom is itching, sometimes accompanied by urticarial rash. Human sparganosis can be prevented by avoiding ingestion of contaminated water and meat, and avoiding direct contact with infected muscles.

Other Diseases: Escherichia coli and Edwardsiella tarda are additional zoonotic organisms that have been documented in amphibians. Human infections are typically acquired through wound contamination or ingestion of contaminated water resulting in gastroenteritis type symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Allergic Reactions to Amphibians

Human sensitivity to amphibian proteins in the laboratory setting is rare. It remains possible, however, to become sensitized to amphibian proteins through inhalation or skin contact.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling amphibians and aquarium water. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.  Keep wet hands off of mucus membranes.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation in which you will spend a significant amount of time with your hands immersed in water or if you have any cuts or abrasions on your hands or arms, you should wear sturdy, impervious gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to fish and aquarium water. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with amphibians. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with amphibians. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Birds can carry organisms that may be potentially infectious to humans. Bird colonies in the laboratory setting are normally closely managed to produce high quality, healthy animal models. The likelihood of a person contracting a disease from a bird is very low. However, there is always a risk of an outbreak occurring within a colony, either from a new bird being introduced into an established colony or from individuals inadvertently contaminating a colony by wearing shoes or clothing that have been in contact with asymptomatic disease-carrying birds. A disease, such as psittacosis, is infectious both to other birds and to people. Therefore, an outbreak within a colony could significantly increase the risk of human exposure.

Psittacosis (Ornithosis, Chlamydiosis): Psittacosis is a disease caused by the bacteria, Chlamydia psittaci. Psittacosis is common in wild birds of all types and can occur in laboratory bird colonies as well.  The reservoir/source of infection to people is infected birds, especially ones displaying symptoms (diarrhea, respiratory signs, conjunctivitis and nasal discharge.)  This disease is highly contagious to other birds as well as humans.  Transmission may be through direct contact or from aerosolization with exudative materials (e.g. pus), secretions or feces. Direct contact with the bird is not necessary.  In people, the disease occurs 7-14 days after exposure. An infected human may develop a respiratory illness of varying severity, from flu-like symptoms in mild cases to pneumonia in more significant infections. Serious cases can result in extensive interstitial pneumonia and rarely hepatitis, myocarditis, thrombophlebitis, and encephalitis. It is responsive to antibiotic therapy. Relapses occur in untreated infections.

Salmonellosis:  Salmonellosis is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery, and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.

Newcastle disease and Avian Tuberculosis:   Newcastle disease is a serious and fatal viral disease in avian species. Affected birds may demonstrate neurological signs that progress to death. Definitive diagnosis is through viral isolation of the organism. The disease is quite contagious among birds and has zoonotic potential that often may go unrecognized. Clinical signs in people most commonly involve a mild conjunctivitis, which is self-limiting. Mycobacterium avian (and possibly other species) is a causative agent of tuberculosis. Affected birds may carry the disease for years, and intermittently shed organisms.  Humans are more commonly infected with M. tuberculosis and occasionally M. bovis. It is believed that immunocompetent humans are resistant to the strains of tuberculosis found in birds, but immunocompromised people, such as those infected with HIV, those on chemotherapy, the elderly and children, are at increased risk. In adults, tuberculosis frequently affects the lungs, producing respiratory signs.  People who are infected with human tuberculosis should not own birds since they can serve as a source of infection for their pets.

Allergic Reaction to Birds

Various bird proteins have been identified as sources of antigens involved in both allergic reactions and hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is a lung condition with symptoms that mimic pneumonia. Symptoms develop after repeated exposure to a specific antigen.  Signs of an allergic reaction after exposure to birds are rhinitis and asthma symptoms (wheezing and dry cough). Signs and symptoms of both allergic reactions and hypersensitivity pneumonitis usually occur several hours after exposure. To reduce exposure, perform procedures in a laminar flow hood whenever possible.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling birds, their cages and their water. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear Personal Protective equipment: If you handle birds select the appropriate gloves for the job, and when in close contact with birds of unknown origin wear respiratory protection.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to birds. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions contact Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with birds. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with birds. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Camelids are large animals that are normally docile and can quickly become use to human interaction.  Injury from camelids comes from their shoving, biting, or sitting down on their handlers.  Injuries can occur from handling and restraining camelids due to their size and strength; therefore, individuals with pre-existing back or joint problems may need assistance. Zoonotic diseases can be a hazard when working with camelids.  The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of camelids.   

Q-Fever: An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria is shed in the urine, feces, milk, and most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-Fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases, Q-Fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks and can be sometimes misdiagnosed as the flu; however, it can be severe in those with other health issues and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Respiratory protection should be used during the birthing process.  Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through the UK Occupational Health Services.  

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and fever. Antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for the illness.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief, self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Brucellosis:  Is a bacterial infectious disease of animals and humans. The disease in animals is caused by various species of brucella.  It is generally limited to abortions and reproductive organ infections. In humans, the disease may mimic flu with symptoms of headache, fever, fatigue, muscle and joint pain.  Rare complications include crippling arthritis, endocarditis, or meningitis. There is no cure for brucellosis in animals. Humans are treated with antibiotics for up to 4 to 6 weeks. Animals and humans are exposed to the brucella bacterium by handling or having contact with infected placentas, amniotic fluids, vaginal discharges, milk, semen, reproductive tissues, and exudates from infected animals, usually just prior to and after an abortion.

Allergic Reactions to Camelids

Animal related allergies are common. Although there are no known camelid allergens, the containment area may have allergens present, such as hay, feed, and dust. Contact dermatitis can also occur when grooming camelids.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling animals. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. Wear the appropriate gloves for the task, and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. For some activities, respiratory protection should be worn.  Your supervisor should be your resource for this equipment.  If you wear a respirator, you must be fitted and tested for use through Occupational Health Services.
• Wear other protective clothing. Coveralls should be available and worn when working with camelids. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with camelids. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with camelids. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Injury &  Zoonotic Diseases   

Cats are generally social animals and respond well to frequent, gentle human contact, however, any cat can become agitated when being restrained for procedures. Due to the penetrating nature of their bites, cats can inflict serious bite wounds and prompt first-aid is particularly important when dealing with such injuries.  Cat bites should always be reported to Employee Health Services.  Scratches are also a hazard when dealing with cats.  It is essential that training be provided to all employees who handle cats in order to avoid injury. The following is a list of potential zoonotic diseases associated with cats.

Cat Scratch Disease: Caused by the bite, scratch, or lick of a cat. Causal agent of the disease is not clearly defined. The disease is benign and heals spontaneously (from 7 to 20) days after symptoms appear and is characterized by regional lymphadenopathy (swollen glands) along with signs of a mild systemic infection consisting of fever, chills, generalized pain, and malaise.

Toxoplasmosis: A protozoan, Toxoplasma gondii has its complete life cycle only in cats, which are the only source of infective oocysts. Other mammals (including people) may become intermediate hosts.  It takes at least 24 hours for oocysts shed in the feces to become infective, so removal of fresh feces daily reduces the risk of acquiring infection. Toxoplasmosis in people resembles mild flu-like symptoms unless immune suppressed (in some individuals it may cause ocular and neurological disease). Infection in a previously uninfected pregnant woman can result in prenatal infection of the developing fetus, which can cause in birth defects. Should an accidental mucosal or needle stick exposure occur, medical services should be obtained through UK Occupational Health Services.

Ringworm: Dermatophyte infection (most commonly Microsporum spp. and Trichophyton spp.) is commonly known as ringworm because of the characteristic circular lesion often associated with it. Dermatophytes are classified as fungi and may not be readily apparent. Disease in people is from direct contact with an infected animal. Ringworm is usually self-limiting and appears as circular, reddened, rough skin. It is responsive to prescription topical therapy.

Pasteurella multocida: This bacterium resides in the oral cavity or upper respiratory tract of cats. Human infection is generally associated with a bite or scratch. Human infection generally appears as local inflammation around the bite or scratch, possibly leading to abscess formation with systemic symptoms.

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases:  There are several other diseases that can be possibly spread through working with cats. Cryptosporidia, Giardia, and Campylobacter are transmitted via the fecal/oral route. These diseases in people are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness; diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever. Clinical signs are generally brief and self-limiting.

Allergic Reactions to Cats

Allergies to cat fur and dander are well documented. The major allergen in a cat is a protein that is produced in the sebaceous glands of the skin, which coats the hair shafts. This protein is also found in the saliva of cats.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling any animal. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. When working with cats, wear appropriate gloves for the task and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn when there is a risk of aerosol transmission of any zoonotic agent or when there is a medical history of allergies.
• Wear other protective clothing. Lab coats should be available and worn when working with the cats. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.  Lab coats should be laundered at work.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then kept clean and dry.  All cat bites should be reported to and treated by Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with cats.  Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with cats. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Cattle are herd animals and creatures of habit with strong territorial instincts.  They hesitate to move into unknown areas, they are sensitive to noise, and are frightened or spooked easily.  Cattle have poor depth perception but good panoramic vision.  They can see to their sides but not their hind quarters, so do not approach from the back.  Cattle kick forward and out. Safety precautions should include long trousers, gloves, and shin guards. Ergonomic injuries, such as back strain, can occur from handling and restraining cattle due to their size and strength. Therefore, individuals with pre-existing back or joint problems may need assistance. Zoonotic diseases, as with other farm animals, can be a hazard when working with cattle. 

The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of cattle:

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI): Dairy cows are at increased risk of infection with Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), particularly in regions with dense poultry populations where exposure to the virus may occur. Although HPAI is primarily a disease of birds, rare cases of transmission to mammals—including humans and cattle—have been reported.

• In humans, HPAI infection typically presents with symptoms similar to seasonal flu, such as fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, and respiratory distress. Severe cases may lead to pneumonia or multi-organ failure.
• In dairy cows, signs of HPAI may include respiratory symptoms such as coughing, nasal discharge, difficulty breathing, lethargy, and decreased milk production.

Animal care workers should practice strict biosecurity measures to reduce the risk of cross-species transmission. While human-to-human transmission of HPAI remains rare, individuals working closely with potentially infected animals should be especially vigilant and report any symptoms to a healthcare provider promptly.

Milker’s nodules (Pseudocowpox): Milker’s nodule is an infection of the skin caused by a virus that infects the teats of cows. It produces mild infections of the teats of cows, i.e. ring sores, as well as ulcers in the mouths of calves.  Human infection is from contact with infected lesions on the animals.  After an incubation period of 5-14 days, small, red, raised, flat-topped spots develop. Within a week, they appear as red-blue, firm, slightly tender lumps that are usually on the hands, particularly the fingers but occasionally the face. There may be secondary bacterial infection. Many develop red streaks up the lymph channels on the arms and some enlargement of the lymph glands. It is difficult to reliably distinguish milkers' nodules from orf, the related condition in sheep, but the appearance of the nodules, number of lesions and whether cows or sheep are being contacted is a guide. Several weeks after the appearance of the nodules some may develop an eruption of small raised spots or blisters on the hands, arms, legs and neck. and usually fades in 1-2 weeks and usually resolves fully.

Q-Fever:  An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria are shed in the urine, feces, milk and, most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-Fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases, Q-Fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks. Sometimes it can be misdiagnosed as the flu. It can be severe in those with other health problems and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through UK Occupational Health Services.  

Anthrax: This is an acute bacterial infection of humans and animals which may be rapidly fatal. The disease occurs worldwide and is an occupational hazard of persons, such as wool-sorters, farm workers and veterinarians, in contact with infected animals or their by-products.  All domestic, zoo and wild animals are potentially at risk of infection. Anthrax bacilli spores contaminate soil for many years. Humans are usually infected by inoculation from direct contact with infected animals, carcasses or animal products and contaminated soil. Inhalation or ingestion of spores may occur. Animals are infected from contaminated feed, forage, water or carcasses.  Cutaneous anthrax causes localized ulceration (sores) and scabs with fever and headache, which may be followed within a few days by severe illness, such as septicemia and meningitis. Inhalation anthrax causes fulminating pneumonia. Intestinal anthrax is associated with acute gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea).

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases:  A few of the other diseases that can possibly be spread through working with cattle include brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, crytospordosis, giardiasis, and salmonellosis.  These are transmitted via the fecal/oral route.  These diseases are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling cattle. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear protective clothing. When working with cattle, wear appropriate coveralls, foot wear, and other equipment based on the work at hand, and remove them after completing the work.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn if you already have allergies and are outside in dusty areas or while attending the cattle in their enclosures.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to dirt and animal by-products. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with cattle. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with cattle. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Dogs are very social animals and respond to human interaction and affection. When injured or ill, they can become frightened and agitated, and they will bite and resist being handled. In the research setting, exposure to dogs can pose potential health risks to humans, such as infection from dog bites and scratches, allergic responses, and exposure to pathogenic enteric organisms through accidental fecal/oral contact. There are many organisms that may not produce symptoms in dogs but can cause diseases in people. The most common of these disease causing organisms are discussed below.

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal; however, it is very rare in the research environment because dogs are purchased from high quality sources with excellent vaccination and disease control programs.  The source of infection to people is an infected animal. Dogs shed the virus in their saliva 1-14 days before developing clinical signs. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite or saliva on an open wound. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal (throat) spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through UK Occupational Health Services.

Brucellosis: The bacterial organism, Brucella canis, is found in dogs and swine breeding colonies where it will be manifested by abortions and reproductive organ infections. Transmission of B. canis to humans is not clear but probably occurs through oral or transcutaneous (skin) contact with organism-infected blood or other tissues.  The disease in humans may mimic the flu with symptoms such as fever, headache, fatigue, muscle and joint pain. Rare complications include arthritis, meningitis and endocarditis. There is no cure for brucellosis in animals, but humans respond to antibiotic treatment over a course of 4 to 6 weeks.

Ringworm: Dermatophyte infection (most commonly Microsporum spp. and Trichophyton spp.) is commonly known as ringworm because of the characteristic circular lesion often associated with it. Dermatophytes are classified as fungi and may not be readily apparent. Disease in people is from direct contact with an infected animal. Ringworm is usually self-limiting and appears as circular, reddened, rough skin. It is responsive to prescription topical therapy.

Tuberculosis: This disease may be transmitted to people through contact with birds, livestock, canines, and non-human primates. Tuberculosis is usually transmitted by the aerosolization of infective bacilli which can be found in sputum, as well as other body fluids. Contact with aerosolized body fluids during necropsy may be a major mode of transmission to humans. Pulmonary tuberculosis is the most common type of TB in humans, but other organs may also be involved.

Leptospirosis: It is bacteria found in many animals but are most commonly associated with livestock and dogs.  The source of infection can be from any of the following: rats, mice, voles, hedgehogs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles, dogs, sheep, goats, horses, standing water.  Leptospires are in the urine of infected animals and are transmitted through direct contact with urine or tissues via skin abrasions or contact with mucous membranes. Transmission can also occur through inhalation of infectious droplet aerosols and by ingestion.  The disease in people is a multi-systemic disease with chronic sequelae.  An annular rash is often present with flu like symptoms. Cardiac and neurological disorders may follow, and arthritis is a common end result.  

Other Diseases: There are several other diseases that can be possibly spread through working with dogs. Cryptosporidia, giardia, campylobacter and salmonella are transmitted via the fecal/oral route. These diseases in people are exhibited by acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and fever). Clinical signs are generally brief and self-limiting.

Allergic Reactions to Dogs

Individuals who have been previously sensitized to dogs outside of the work place may be at greater risk of developing allergies to dogs. Exposure to dog allergens is via saliva, hair, and skin.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling dogs. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. When working with dogs wear appropriate gloves for the task and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn if there is a personal history of allergies to dogs and when there is a risk of aerosol transmission of a zoonotic agent. An N-95 should be worn.
• Wear other protective clothing. Lab coats or coveralls should be available and worn when working with the dogs. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to dogs. All dog bites should be treated at Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with dogs. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with dogs. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Aside from food poisonings, the overall incidence of transmission of disease-producing agents from fish to humans is low. There are, however, a number of agents that are found in fish and aquarium water that have the potential to be transmitted to humans. In general, humans contract fish borne disease through ingestion of infected fish tissues or aquarium water or by contamination of lacerated or abraded skin. An important feature of many of the disease causing agents is their opportunistic nature. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that compromises the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy), you are at-risk for contracting a fish borne disease and should consult your physician. The following is a list of known and potential fish borne zoonoses.

Mycobacterium: Organisms in the genus Mycobacterium are non-motile, acid-fast rods. Two species, M. fortuitum and M. marinum, are recognized as pathogens of tropical fish. Humans are typically infected by contamination of lacerated or abraded skin with aquarium water or fish contact. A localized granulomatous nodule (hard bump) may form at the site of infection, most commonly on hands or fingers. The granulomas usually appear approximately 6-8 weeks after exposure to the organism. They initially appear as reddish bumps (papules) that slowly enlarge into purplish nodules. The infection can spread to nearby lymph nodes. More disseminated forms of the disease are likely in immunocompromised individuals. It is possible for these species of mycobacterium to cause some degree of positive reaction to the tuberculin skin test.

Aeromonas spp.: Aeromonad organisms are facultative anaerobic, gram-negative rods. These organisms can produce septicemia (a severe generalized illness) in infected fish. The species most commonly isolated is A. hydrophilia. It is found world wide in tropical fresh water and is considered part of the normal intestinal microflora of healthy fish. Humans infected with Aeromonas may show a variety of clinical signs, but the two most common syndromes are gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting and diarrhea) and localized wound infections. Again, infections are more common and serious in the immunocompromised individual.

Other Bacteria and Protozoa: Below is a list of additional zoonotic organisms that have been documented in fish or aquarium water. Human infections are typically acquired through ingestion of contaminated water (resulting in gastroenteritis symptoms) or from wound contamination.

• Gram-negative Organisms: Plesiomonas shigelloides, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Klebsiella spp., Edwardsiella tarda
• Gram-positive Organisms: Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Clostridium, Erysipelothrix, Nocardia
• Protozoa: Cryptosporidium

Allergic Reactions to Fish

Human sensitivity to fish proteins in the laboratory setting is rare. It remains possible, however, to become sensitized to fish proteins through inhalation or skin contact.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling fish and aquarium water. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation in which you will spend a significant amount of time with your hands immersed in water or if you have any cuts or abrasions on your hands or arms, you should wear sturdy, impervious gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to fish and aquarium water. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with fish. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with fish. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Fowl, like other avian, can carry organisms that may be potentially infectious to humans. Avian colonies in the laboratory setting are normally closely managed to produce high quality, healthy animal models. The likelihood of a person contracting a disease from avian in a controlled setting is very low. However, there is always a risk of an outbreak occurring within a colony, either from new bird being introduced into an established colony or from individuals inadvertently contaminating a colony by wearing shoes or clothing that have been in contact with asymptomatic, disease-carrying fowl. A disease, such as psittacosis, is infectious both to other birds and to people. Therefore, an outbreak within a colony could significantly increase the risk of human exposure.

Psittacosis (Ornithosis, Chlamydiosis): Psittacosis is a disease caused by the bacteria, Chlamydia psittaci. Psittacosis is common in wild birds of all types and can occur in laboratory bird colonies as well.  The reservoir/source of infection to people is infected birds, especially ones displaying symptoms (diarrhea, respiratory signs, conjunctivitis and nasal discharge.)  They are highly contagious to other birds as well as humans.  Transmission may be through direct contact or from aerosolization with exudative materials (e.g. pus), secretions or feces. Direct contact with the bird is not necessary.  In people this disease occurs 7-14 days after exposure. An infected human may develop a respiratory illness of varying severity, from flu-like symptoms in mild cases to pneumonia in more significant infections. Serious cases can result in extensive interstitial pneumonia and, rarely, hepatitis, myocarditis, thrombophlebitis, and encephalitis. It is responsive to antibiotic therapy. Relapses occur in untreated infections.

Salmonellosis: It is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.

Campylobacter: This is a gram-negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever). It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Newcastle disease and Avian Tuberculosis:   Newcastle disease is a serious and fatal viral disease in avian species. Affected birds may demonstrate neurological signs that progress to death. Definitive diagnosis is through viral isolation of the organism. The disease is quite contagious among birds and has zoonotic potential that often may go unrecognized. A clinical symptom in humans most commonly involves a mild conjunctivitis that is self-limiting. Mycobacterium avian (and possibly other species) is a causative agent of tuberculosis. Affected birds may carry the disease for years and intermittently shed organisms.  Humans are more commonly infected with M. tuberculosis and occasionally M. bovis.  In adult humans, tuberculosis frequently affects the lungs, producing respiratory signs.

Allergic Reaction to Birds

Various bird proteins have been identified as sources of antigens involved in both allergic reactions and hypersensitivity pneumonitis. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is a lung condition with symptoms that mimic pneumonia. Symptoms develop after repeated exposure to a specific antigen found in birds.  Signs of an allergic reaction after exposure to birds are rhinitis and asthma symptoms (wheezing and dry cough). Signs and symptoms of both allergic reactions and hypersensitivity pneumonitis usually occur several hours after exposure.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling birds, their cages and their water. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear Personal Protective equipment: If you handle birds, select the appropriate gloves for the job, and when in close contact with birds of unknown origin, wear respiratory protection.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to birds. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, contact UK Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with birds. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with birds. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Goats are more difficult to handle than cattle or sheep. They do not flow through handling systems with ease. When they are frightened, they may lie down and sulk and pack in a corner, risking injury to other goats.  They can also become aggressive towards each other. They move in family groups with the older females moving first. Their defense mechanisms are to ram or bite. They may need higher gates than sheep and will find escape spots in most handling systems if they exist. Ergonomic injuries, such as back strain, can occur from handling and restraining sheep due to their size, strength and agility.  Therefore individuals with pre-existing back or joint problems may need assistance when working with sheep.  The following is a list of zoonotic diseases associated with goats:

Q-Fever: An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria are shed in the urine, feces, milk and, most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-Fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases, Q-Fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks and can be sometimes misdiagnosed as the flu.  However, it can be severe in those with other health issues and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Respiratory protection should be used during the birthing process.  Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through UK Occupational Health Services.  

Contagious Echthyma (Orf): This poxviral disease is known as contagious echthyma, or sore mouth in sheep and goats and orf in people. In ruminants, it is evidenced by exudative (draining) lesions found on the muzzle, eyelids, oral cavity, feet or external genitalia. It is more common in younger animals. In ruminants, the disease is highly contagious to humans and other animals. Infected sheep or goats are the source of infection to people.  Transmission can be by direct contact with lesions or indirectly from contaminated objects such as hair or clothing. This is a self-limiting infection that is usually found on the hands.  It consists of painful nodules (bumps), cutaneous ulcerative lesions (open sores), and usually lasts 1-2 months. 

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite, followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases: Brucellosis, salmonellosis, giardiasis are other diseases that can be transmitted through contact with goats.  In humans, these diseases initially exhibit as an acute gastrointestinal illness (nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea).

Allergic Reactions

The hair and dander of the goats can be a source of allergies. Proteins secreted by oil glands in an animal's skin, as well as the proteins present in an animal's saliva, can cause allergic reactions in some people. Allergies to animals can take two or more years to develop, and symptoms may not subside until months after ending contact with the animal. Symptoms may include sneezing, congestion, and itchy, watery eyes. Skin rash and itching may also occur.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling goats. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear protective clothing. When working with goats, wear appropriate coveralls and foot wear, and remove them after completing your work.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn during grooming or if you already have allergies and you are outside in dusty areas.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to dirt or animal secretions. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with goats. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with goats. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Horses are large farm animals that respond to gentle handling.  Horses are herd animals and creatures of habit that prefer to stay with their herd and resist being moved to strange territory. They do not like surprises or fast movement and express their dislike by pinning back their ears or swishing their tails.  They can deliver swift kicks and will bite. Ergonomic injuries, such as back strain, can occur from handling and restraining horses due to their size and strength; therefore, individuals with pre-existing back or joint problems may need assistance when working with horses.  Zoonotic diseases, can be a hazard when working with horses as with other farm animals.  The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of horses:

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite, followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea and fever. Antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for the illness.

Tuberculosis: This disease may be transmitted to people through contact with birds, livestock, and non-human primates. Tuberculosis is usually transmitted by the aerosolization of infective bacilli, which can be found mainly in the sputum as well as other body fluids. Contact with body fluids during necropsy may be a major mode of transmission of TB to humans. Pulmonary tuberculosis is the most common type but other organs may also be involved.

Anthrax: This is an acute bacterial infection of humans and animals which may be rapidly fatal. The disease occurs worldwide and is an occupational hazard of persons, such as wool-sorters, farm workers and veterinarians, in contact with infected animals or their by-products.  All domestic, zoo and wild animals are potentially at risk of infection. Anthrax bacilli are released from infected carcasses and form resistant spores on exposure to air. These spores contaminate soil for many years. Humans are usually infected by inoculation from direct contact with infected animals, carcasses or animal products, and contaminated soil. Inhalation or ingestion of spores may occur. Animals are infected from contaminated feed, forage, water or carcasses.  Cutaneous anthrax causes localized ulceration (sores) and scabs with fever and headache, which may be followed within a few days by septicemia and meningitis. Inhalation anthrax causes fulminating pneumonia. Intestinal anthrax is associated with acute gastroenteritis (nausea, diarrhea, and bloody diarrhea).

Other Diseases: Brucellosis, cryposporidiosis, leptospirosis, and yersiniosis are other diseases that can be transmitted through contact with horses.  These diseases, in humans, initially exhibit as an acute gastrointestinal illness.

Allergic Reactions

The hair and dander of the horse can be sources of allergies. Proteins secreted by oil glands in an animal's skin, as well as the proteins present in an animal's saliva, can cause allergic reactions in some people. Allergies to animals can take two or more years to develop and symptoms may not subside until months after ending contact with the animal. Symptoms include sneezing, congestion, and itchy, watery eyes. It can also cause skin rash and itching.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling horses. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear protective clothing. When working with horses wear appropriate coveralls and foot wear, and remove them after completing your work.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn during grooming or if you already have allergies and you are outside in dusty areas. During necropsy, respiratory protection should always be worn to prevent accidental transmission of zoonoses through inhalation.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to dirt or animal secretions. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with horses. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with horses. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

These furbearers are the smallest members of the family Mustelidae. Most mustelids consume flesh, while others feed on a high proportion of insects or other invertebrates.  They are often quick, agile, and extremely effective predators with very sharp teeth. Their primary risk to humans is their bite and, in the wild, their potential for transmitting rabies. Some of the zoonotic diseases associated with mustelids are:

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks, possibly longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite, followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and laryngeal spasms are present. Muscle spasms, extreme excitability, and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Salmonellosis: It is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis/encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems.

Campylobacter: This is a gram-negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness (diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever). It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually, it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling any animal, their bedding, cages, or contaminated water. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation in which you will handle mustelids, wear sturdy impervious gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to dirt.  All mustelid bites should receive medical attention. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, contact Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with mustelids. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with mustelids. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases  

Nonhuman primates can be very difficult and even dangerous to handle.  No employee should attempt to handle or care for a non-human primate without first being trained. Primate Center departmental guidelines should be strictly followed when it comes to the care and use of nonhuman primates. Non-human primates are highly susceptible to human diseases, such as influenza, measles and tuberculosis, and humans can be highly susceptible to non-human primate diseases. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy), you are at higher risk for contracting these diseases. The following is a list of some of the non-human primate zoonoses.

Tuberculosis: This disease may be transmitted to people through contact with birds, livestock, and non-human primates. Tuberculosis is usually transmitted by the aerosolization of infective bacilli which can be found mainly in the sputum as well as other body fluids. When dealing with animals, contact with body fluids during necropsy may be a major mode of transmission of tuberculosis to humans. Pulmonary tuberculosis is the most common type, but other organs may also be involved.

Cercopithicine herpesvirus 1 (CHV1, Herpesvirus simiae, monkey B virus): Macaques are the major source of infection. This disease is quite rare in humans, but if contracted, it is either fatal or causes permanent neurological disease. Most macaques are asymptomatic carriers or display only mild oral lesions that are difficult to detect. Therefore, all macaques should be presumed to be shedding B-virus.  Other old world primates may also be infected. Transmission occurs by percutaneous exposure to infected oral or genital secretions via bites, scratches, needle sticks, or direct contact with macaque tissue.  Additionally, exposure can occur by splashes to the eyes, mouth, or open skin lesions from infected body fluids. The incubation period is 5-21 days.  Some cases have presented as an unexplained febrile disease (fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and dizziness) and persistent headache. Other cases have presented with fluid-filled vesicles that form near skin wounds sustained from an injury related to the macaque and are followed by localized paresthesia.

Simian Immunodeficiency Virus: Simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) have been found as persistent nonpathogenic infections in their natural reservoir in various species of Old World non-human primates. Animals with naturally occurring and experimental SIV infections and the associated primate tissues (including blood and blood products) constitute potential infectious hazards to personnel.  Mode of transmission can occurred through splashes of infectious material onto mucous membranes, contamination of open cuts or abrasions on the skin, and needle stick injuries. Post exposure prophylaxis regimens involve the use of antiretroviral agents.

Shigellosis: Shigella appears to be acquired by non-human primates in captivity from contact with infected humans.  The presence of asymptomatic, chronic carriers and re-infections can maintain high rates of endemic infections in research colonies; stress promotes episodes of overt disease. Clinical signs can include diarrhea containing mucus, dehydration, and weight loss. Transmission is by the fecal-oral route in humans and non-human primates. In humans, the incubation period averages 1-4 days. The disease varies from mild gastrointestinal infections to dysentery or watery diarrhea, fever, and nausea.

Salmonellosis: As in the case of Shigella, the Salmonella pathogen is probably acquired by non-human primates in captivity from exposure to infected humans, and transmission of the agent back to humans is likely. Various species and bio-serotypes of Salmonella have been isolated from non-human primates such as macaques, guenons, tamarins, owl monkeys, and chimpanzees, however, it is rarely reported in established colonies. Symptoms of infection are watery diarrhea, sometimes containing blood or mucus, and fever.

Other Diseases: There are several viruses associated with non-human primates that can cause significant disease in people. These include the Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Filoviruses and Monkey Pox Viruses. These are usually associated with recently imported, wild-caught animals in quarantine but are very rare in domestically bred animals.

Allergic Reactions to Primates

General animal related allergies are common. Although there are no known allergens associated with nonhuman primates, the environment may have common allergens present, such as dust from bedding.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling any animal. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear protective clothing. Protective clothing such as coveralls, lab coats, gloves, face shields and goggles should be worn according to the Primate Center’s policies.  Dirty protective clothing should never be taken out of the Primate Center.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly.  All Primate Center injuries must be reported immediately, and medical care or consultation is required.  Primate Center policies on the handling of bites and scratches should be strictly adhered to. Call UK Occupational Health Services for questions regarding medical care.
• Tell your physician you work with nonhuman primates. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with non-human primates. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Rabbits are generally docile animals that are easy to handle and pose minimal risks of contracting a zoonotic disease to laboratory personnel and animal care staff. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that has compromised the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy), you are at higher risk for contracting a rabbit disease and should consult your physician. The primary concern when working with rabbits is developing allergies and injuries from scratches and bites. Prior to your assignment, you should receive training in specific handling techniques and specific protective clothing requirements. The following is a list of known and potential rabbit zoonoses.

Pasteurella multocida: This bacteria lives in the oral cavity or upper respiratory tract of rabbits. Human infection is generally associated with a rabbit bite or scratch. Human infection is generally local inflammation around the bite or scratch, possibly leading to abscess formation with systemic symptoms.

Cryptosporidiosis: An extracellular protozoal organism, cryptospordium is transmitted via the fecal-oral route; waterborne transmission is also important. In humans, infection varies from no symptoms to mild gastrointestinal symptoms to marked watery diarrhea. The infection is generally self-limited and lasts a few days to about 2 weeks. In immunocompromised individuals, the illness is more severe.

Other Potential Diseases Associated with rabbits:  While none of the following are commonly associated with laboratory rabbits, these diseases are associated with rabbits. Brucella suis biotype 2, cheyletiella infestation, francisella tularensis, plague, Q-fever, and trichophyton mentagrophytes.

Allergic Reactions to Rabbits

Allergies to rabbit fur and dander are well documented. A major glycoprotein allergen can occur in the fur of rabbits and minor allergenic components found in rabbit saliva and urine have been identified as sources of allergies.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling rabbits, their bedding or contaminated water. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation in which you will handle the rabbits, their bedding or other items potentially contaminated with rabbit feces, wear appropriate gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to rabbits. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, contact Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with rabbits. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with rabbits. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Injury & Zoonotic Diseases

Reptiles should always be considered wild animals and handled with a great deal of respect.  No one should be handling a reptile unless they have had training on safe handling procedures. Reptiles can use their claws to dig into flesh or clothing, or they can scramble in an attempt to be freed or they will thrash around in an attempt to escape. Moving or handling venomous snakes requires special skills and experience. Reaching or attempting to grab a freed reptile can cause injury to neck, back, and shoulder muscles.

The overall incidence of transmission of disease-producing agents from reptiles to humans is relatively low. In general, humans acquire these diseases through poor personal hygiene. The following are some of the zoonotic diseases that can be acquired by handling reptiles.

Salmonella: This bacterium inhabits the intestinal tract of many animals and humans. Salmonella occurs worldwide and is easily transmitted through ingestion of contaminated material, either directly or indirectly. Common symptoms of the illness are acute gastroenteritis with sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, and fever. The use of antibiotic treatment is standard treatment for this illness.

Aeromonas Hydrophila:  This is a species of bacterium that is present in all freshwater environments and in brackish water.  Infection is acquired through open wounds or by ingestion of contaminated food or water. Common symptoms are those associated with gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea) and wound infections.

Edwardsiella tarda:  This is a gram-negative rod bacteria usually found in the intestines of cold-blooded animals and in fresh water. It is an opportunistic pathogen occasionally causing acute gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea) and can be associated with meningitis, septicemia, and wound infections. Mode of transmission is via the fecal/oral route or ingestion of contaminated food.  Antibiotics are used for treatment.

Melioidosis:  Also called Whitmore's disease is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Burkholderia pseudomallei. Melioidosis is clinically and pathologically similar to glanders disease, but the ecology and epidemiology of melioidosis are different from glanders. Melioidosis is predominately a disease of tropical climates, especially in Southeast Asia where it is endemic. The bacteria causing melioidosis are found in contaminated water and soil and are spread to humans and animals through direct contact with the contaminated source. Illness from melioidosis can be categorized as acute or localized infection, acute pulmonary infection, acute bloodstream infection, and chronic suppurative infection. Inapparent infections are also possible. The incubation period (time between exposure and appearance of clinical symptoms) is not clearly defined, but may range from 2 days to many years.

Allergic Reactions to Reptiles

Human sensitivity to reptile proteins in the laboratory setting is rare. It remains possible however, to become sensitized to reptile proteins through inhalation or direct skin contact.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling reptiles or cleaning their enclosures.  Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation in which you will spend a significant amount of time cleaning enclosures or if you have any cuts or abrasions on your hands or arms, you should wear sturdy, impervious gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to animals and their housing materials. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with Reptiles. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with reptiles. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Colony-born rodents are generally docile, but may occasionally inflict injury such as a bite or scratch. While rodents may carry organisms that may be potentially infectious to humans, the major health risk to individuals working with laboratory rodents is the development of an allergy. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that compromises the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy) you are at higher risk for contracting a rodent disease and should consult your physician. The following is a list of some of the potential rodent zoonoses.

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) is caused by the arenavirus commonly associated with hamsters, but does infect mice. LCM is rare in laboratory animal facilities, more common in the wild. Transmission to humans is through contact with infected tissues including tumors, feces, urine, or aerosolization of any one of these. Disease in humans is generally flu-like symptoms that range from mild to severe.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Leptospirosis: Is bacteria found in many animals but are most commonly associated with livestock and dogs.  The source of infection can be from any of the following: rats, mice, voles, hedgehogs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles, dogs, sheep, goats, horses, and standing water.  Leptospires are in the urine of infected animals and are transmitted through direct contact with urine or tissues via skin abrasions or contact with mucous membranes. Transmission can also occur through inhalation of infectious droplet aerosols and by ingestion.  The disease in people is a multi-systemic disease with chronic sequelae.  An annular rash is often present with flu like symptoms. Cardiac and neurological disorders may follow and arthritis is a common end result.  

Hantavirus Infection:  Hantavirus occurs mainly among the wild rodent populations in certain portions of the world. Rats and mice have been implicated in outbreaks of the disease. A hantavirus infection from rats has very rarely occurred in laboratory animal facility workers. Rodents shed the virus in their respiratory secretions, saliva, urine and feces. Transmission to humans is via inhalation of infectious aerosols. The form of the disease that has been documented after laboratory animal exposure is characterized by fever, headache, myalgia (muscle aches) and petechiae (rash) and other hemorrhagic symptoms including anemia and gastrointestinal bleeding.

Other Bacterial Diseases: There are several other bacterial diseases that are possibly, though rarely spread through working with laboratory rodents. These include yersinia and tularaemia.

Allergic Reactions to Rodents

By far the greatest occupational risk to working with rodents is allergic reaction or developing allergies. Those workers that have other allergies are at greater risk. Animal or animal products such as dander, hair, scales, fur, saliva and body waste, and urine in particular, contain powerful allergens that can cause both skin disorders and respiratory symptoms. The primary symptoms of an allergic reaction are nasal or eye symptoms, skin disorders, and asthma.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventatives measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling any animal. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. When working with rodents wear appropriate gloves for the task and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn when there is a risk of aerosol transmission of a zoonotic agent or when there is a medical history of allergies. Fit testing of a respiratory can be done at Occupational Health Services.
• Wear other protective clothing. Lab coats should be available and worn when working with rodents. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.  Lab coats should be laundered at work.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to rats and mice. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, contact Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with rodents.  Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with rodents. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Sheep are large domestic animals that are normally docile.  However, they can become dangerous especially when isolated from their flock.  Jumping is common in sheep and they can jump with enough force to break a handler’s legs.  Butting is another defensive activity of sheep, and the rule of handling is to never turn your back on the animal when in their pens. Ergonomic injuries such as back strain can occur from handling and restraining sheep due to their size and strength; therefore individuals with pre-existing back or joint problems may need assistance when working with sheep.

Zoonotic diseases, as with other farm animals, can be a hazard when working with sheep.  The following lists several of the diseases that are associated with the care and handling of sheep.   

Rabies:  Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks or even longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and there are laryngeal spasms. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through UK Occupational Health Services.

Q-Fever: An infection caused by the bacteria Coxiella burnetii, is most commonly associated with sheep, although goats, cattle, and other mammals can be sources of infection. Infected ruminants are usually asymptomatic. The bacteria is shed in the urine, feces, milk, and most importantly, birth products (placenta, amniotic fluid, blood and soiled bedding) of infected animals. Q-fever is spread by aerosolization of infected body fluids. Disease transmission can be reduced by careful disposal of birth products.  In most cases Q -fever is manifested by flu-like symptoms that usually resolve within 2 weeks and can be sometimes misdiagnosed as the flu. However, it can be severe in those with other health issues and can lead to pulmonary and cardiac complications. Respiratory protection should be used during the lambing process.  Employees can be screened for Q-Fever through Occupational Health Services.  

Contagious Echthyma: (Orf) This poxviral disease is known as contagious ecthyma or soremouth in sheep and goats, and orf in people. In ruminants, it is evidenced by exudative (oozing) lesions found on the muzzle, eyelids, oral cavity, feet or external genitalia. It is more common in younger animals. The disease in ruminants is contagious to humans and other animals. Infected sheep or goats are the source of infection to people.  Transmission can be by direct contact with lesions or indirectly by contaminated fomites (hair, clothing). No person to person contact has been reported. This is a self-limiting infection, which is usually found on the hands and consists of painful nodules (bumps) and cutaneous ulcerative lesions, and usually lasts 1-2 months. 

Other Diseases: There are other diseases that are associated with contact to sheep, such as brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, coccidiodomycosis, cryptosporidiosis, giardiasis and anthrax. Good personal hygiene and the wearing of the appropriate personal protection are effective measures for preventing illness.

Allergic Reactions to Sheep

Animal related allergies are common. Although there are no known sheep allergens, the sheep containment environment may have allergens present in hay and dust. Contact dermatitis can also occur when handling sheep wool.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling sheep. Never smoke, drink, or eat in the animal areas or before washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. Wear the appropriate gloves for the task and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. For some activities, respiratory protection should be worn.  Your supervisor should be your resource for this equipment.  If you wear a respirator, you must be fitted and tested for use through Occupational Health Services.
• Wear other protective clothing. Coveralls should be available and worn when working with sheep. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap. For more serious injuries or if there are any question, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with sheep. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with sheep. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Physically, swine handling can be very demanding. Because it is so difficult to withstand their pushing and shoving, care should be taken when entering pens that hold a large number of animals.  Swine should be guided for moving and sorting with solid, hand-held panels. Swine respond well to the use of a panel and the panel protects the handler from being bitten or gored. The zoonotic diseases associate with handling swine includes the following:

Anthrax: This is an acute bacterial infection of humans and animals which may be rapidly fatal. The disease occurs worldwide and is an occupational hazard of persons such as wool-sorters, farm workers and veterinarians in contact with infected animals or their by-products.  All domestic, zoo and wild animals are potentially at risk of infection. Anthrax bacilli are released from infected carcasses and form resistant spores on exposure to air. These spores contaminate soil for many years. Humans are usually infected by inoculation from direct contact with infected animals, carcasses or animal products and contaminated soil. Inhalation or ingestion of spores may occur. Animals are infected from contaminated feed, forage, water or carcasses.  Cutaneous anthrax causes localized ulceration (sore) and scab with fever and headache and in rare circumstances be followed by more severe conditions such as septicemia and meningitis. Inhalation anthrax causes fulminating pneumonia. Intestinal anthrax is associated with acute gastroenteritis (nausea, vomiting and diarrhea).

Brucellosis:  Is a bacterial infectious disease of animals and humans. The disease in animals is caused by various species of brucella.  It is generally limited to abortions and reproductive organ infections. In humans, the disease may mimic the flu with symptoms of headache, fever, fatigue, muscle and joint pain.  Rare complications include crippling arthritis, endocarditis or meningitis. There is no cure for brucellosis in animals. Humans are treated with antibiotics for up to 4 to 6 weeks. Animals and humans are exposed to the brucella bacterium by contact with infected placentas, amniotic fluids, vaginal discharges, milk, semen, reproductive tissues, and exudates from infected animals usually just prior to and after an abortion.

Leptospirosis: Is a disease found in many animals but are most commonly associated with livestock and dogs.  The source of infection can be from any of the following: Rats, mice, voles, hedgehogs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles, dogs, sheep, goats, horses, pigs and standing water.  Leptospires are in the urine of infected animals and are transmitted through direct contact with urine or tissues via skin abrasions or contact with mucous membranes. Transmission can also occur through inhalation of infectious droplet aerosols and by ingestion.  The disease in people is a multi-systemic disease with chronic sequelae.  An annular rash is often present with flu like symptoms, cardiac and neurological disorders may follow and arthritis is a common end result.  

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection is an infected animal.  The virus is shed in saliva 1-14 days before clinical symptoms develop. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through direct contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. The incubation period is from 2 to 8 weeks or even longer. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and there are laryngeal spasms. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Other Diseases:  There are many other diseases that can possibly be spread through working with swine. Crytospordosis, salmonellosis and yersinia enterocolitica are examples of some of the disease that can be transmitted via the fecal/oral route and manifest as acute gastrointestinal illness.  Ascari suum and influenza are examples of diseases that can be transmitted through inhalation.  These diseases are exhibited by respiratory difficulty as well as gastrointestinal illness.

Allergic Reactions to Swine

Swine are one of the least likely animals to cause human allergies. However, respiratory protection may be necessary when working around feed and bedding for those who already have allergies.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wear gloves. Wear the appropriate gloves for the task and wash your hands after removing gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. For some activities, respiratory protection should be worn.  Your supervisor should be your resource for this equipment.  If you wear a respirator, you must be fitted and tested for use through Occupational Health Services.
• Other protective clothing. Coveralls should be available and worn when working with swine. Avoid wearing street clothes while working with animals.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with swine. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with swine. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

The overall number of disease-producing agents from the turtle family to humans is relatively low. There are, however, agents that are endemic to this species. In general, humans acquire these diseases through aquarium water or through the handling of feces. An important feature of many bacterial and protozoal organisms is their opportunistic nature. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that compromises the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy) you are at-risk for contracting zoonotic diseases and should consult your physician. The following is a list of potential turtle and tortoise zoonoses.

Salmonellosis:  Is a disease caused by the bacteria species Salmonella. It is one of the most common zoonotic diseases in humans.  Birds and reptiles (especially iguanas) are the animals most frequently associated with Salmonella.  Most people typically contract the disease by consuming food or water contaminated with the bacteria. Symptoms include diarrhea (usually watery and occasionally bloody), nausea, vomiting, fever, chills, and abdominal cramps. If the bacteria leaves the blood stream and enters the central nervous system, meningitis and or encephalitis may develop. Salmonellosis is a very serious disease in humans, especially for young children and people with compromised immune systems. Antibiotics are the standard treatment.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Allergic Reactions to Turtles and Tortoises

Human sensitivity to turtles and tortoises in the laboratory setting is rare. It remains possible however, to become sensitized to their proteins through direct contact.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventative measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling turtles and their aquarium water, and after handling tortoises. Never smoke, drink or eat in the animal rooms or without washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. If you are in a situation where you will spend a significant amount of time with your hands immersed in water or if you have any cuts or abrasions on your hands or arms, you should wear sturdy, impervious gloves.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure to live animals and aquarium water. For more serious injuries or if there are any questions, employees should report to Occupational Health Services.
• Tell your physician you work with turtles or tortoises. Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with turtles or tortoises. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.

Potential Zoonotic Diseases

Wild rodents and rabbits may inflict injury such as a bite or scratch. Employees need to receive training on the correct way to capture and handle any wild animals. While they may carry or shed organisms that may be potentially infectious to humans, the primary health risk to individuals working with captured animals is the development of an allergy. The development of disease in the human host often requires a preexisting state that compromises the immune system. If you have an immune-compromising medical condition or you are taking medications that impair your immune system (steroids, immunosuppressive drugs, or chemotherapy) you are at higher risk for contracting a rodent disease and should consult your physician. The following is a list of some of the potential wild rodents and rabbits.

Rabies: Rabies virus (rhabdovirus) can infect almost any mammal. The source of infection to people is an infected animal. The virus is shed in the animal’s saliva 1-14 days before developing clinical signs. Any random-source (animal with an unknown clinical history) or wild animal exhibiting central nervous system signs that are progressive should be considered suspect for rabies. Transmission is through contact with saliva, mucus membranes, or blood, e.g. bite, or saliva on an open wound. Symptoms are pain at the site of the bite followed by numbness. The skin becomes quite sensitive to temperature changes and there are laryngeal (throat) spasms. Muscle spasms and extreme excitability are present and convulsions occur. Rabies in unvaccinated people is almost invariably fatal.  Rabies vaccine is available through Occupational Health Services.

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCM) is caused by the arenavirus commonly associated with hamsters, but does infect mice. LCM is rare in laboratory animal facilities, more common in the wild. Transmission to humans is through contact with tissues including tumor, feces, urine, or aerosolization of any one of these. Disease in humans is generally flu-like symptoms that range from mild to severe.

Campylobacter: This is a gram negative bacterium that has a worldwide distribution. Although most cases of human campylobacteriosis are of unknown origin, transmission is thought to occur by the fecal-oral route, through contamination of food or water, or by direct contact with infected fecal material. The organism has also been isolated from houseflies.  Campylobacter is shed in the feces for at least six weeks after infection. Symptoms are acute gastrointestinal illness: diarrhea with or without blood, abdominal pain, and fever. It may cause pseudoappendicitis and, rarely, septicemia and arthritis. Usually it is a brief self-limiting disease that can be treated with antibiotics.

Leptospirosis: Is bacteria found in many animals but are most commonly associated with livestock and dogs.  The source of infection can be from any of the following: rats, mice, voles, hedgehogs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles, dogs, sheep, goats, horses, standing water.  Leptospires are in the urine of infected animals and are transmitted through direct contact with urine or tissues via skin abrasions or contact with mucous membranes. Transmission can also occur through inhalation of infectious droplet aerosols and by ingestion.  The disease in people is multi-systemic disease with chronic sequelae.  An annular rash is often present with flu like symptoms. Cardiac and neurological disorders may follow and arthritis is a common end result.  

Hantavirus Infection:  Hantavirus occurs mainly among the wild rodent populations. Rats and mice have been implicated in outbreaks of the disease. Rodents shed the virus in their respiratory secretions, saliva, urine and feces. Transmission to humans is via inhalation of infectious aerosols. The disease is characterized by fever, headache, myalgia (muscle aches) and petechiae (rash) and other hemorrhagic symptoms including anemia and gastrointestinal bleeding.

Allergic Reactions to Rodents and Rabbits

By far the greatest occupational risk to working with rodents and rabbits is allergic reaction or developing allergies. Those workers that have other allergies are at greater risk. Animal or animal products such as dander, hair, scales, fur, saliva and body waste, and urine in particular, contain powerful allergens that can cause both skin disorders and respiratory symptoms. The primary symptoms of an allergic reaction are nasal or eye symptoms, skin disorders, and asthma.

How to Protect Yourself

• Wash your hands. The single most effective preventatives measure that can be taken is thorough, regular hand washing. Wash hands and arms after handling any animal. Never smoke, drink, or eat without washing your hands.
• Wear gloves. When working with animals wear appropriate gloves for the task, and wash your hands after removing the gloves.
• Wear respiratory protection. Dust masks should be worn when there is a risk of aerosol transmission of a zoonotic agent or when there is a medical history of allergies. Fit testing of a respiratory can be done at Occupational Health Services.
• Wear other protective clothing. Coveralls should be available and worn when working in the field. Avoid handling wild rodents or rabbits while wearing street clothes. Coveralls should be laundered separately at work.
• Seek Medical Attention Promptly. If you are injured on the job, promptly report the accident to your supervisor, even if it seems relatively minor. Minor cuts and abrasions should be immediately cleansed with antibacterial soap and then protected from exposure.  All wild animal bites should receive medical care from Occupational Health Services.  
• Tell your physician you work with wild rodents or rabbits.  Whenever you are ill, even if you're not certain that the illness is work-related, always mention to your physician that you work with wild rodents or rabbits. Many zoonotic diseases have flu-like symptoms and would not normally be suspected. Your physician needs this information to make an accurate diagnosis. Questions regarding personal human health should be answered by your physician.